Erzsébet, Miksa bajor herceg (1808-1888) és Ludovika (1808-1892) bajor királyi hercegnő harmadik gyermekeként látta meg a napvilágot 1837-ben, Münchenben. Gyermekkorát jórészt Possenhofenben, a Starnbergi tó partján töltötte. A család meglehetősen szabad életvitele nem terhelte kötelezettségekkel: úszással, lovaglással, hegymászással foglalkozott legszívesebben.
Ludovika nővére, Zsófia (1805-1872) bajor királyi hercegnő Ausztria császárának, I. Ferenc Józsefnek az édesanyja volt. Huszonhárom éves fia számára - az osztrák-német kapcsolatok megszilárdítása céljából - német hercegnőt keresett, így esett a választás (több sikertelen kísérlet után) a Wittelsbachokra, a hercegi család legidősebb lányára, Ilonára. A két fiatal első találkozására 1853 augusztusában, Ischlben került sor. A találkozóra Ludovika kisebbik lányát, Erzsébetet is magával vitte, aki éppen szerelmi bánat miatt búslakodott. A szép, szőke császár érdeklődését Ilona helyett a tizenhat éves, copfos, csendes, gátlásos kislány keltette fel. A kölcsönös szerelemből 1854 áprilisában megkötött házasság azonban kevés boldogságot hozott Erzsébetnek. A Hofburg falai között alig találkozott a napi politikával, az uralkodás gondjaival teljesen lekötött ifjú férjével. Erzsébet magányos volt, senkivel nem oszthatta meg bánatát, amit a szabad, boldog vidéki élet elvesztése s napirendjének a rideg udvari etiketthez való igazítása okozott. Személyisége kezdettől fogva ellentétben állt a ráosztott szereppel: a mellé rendelt idős, unalmas udvarhölgyek állandóan kritizálták öltözködését, műveltségét, tánctudását, viselkedését. Erzsébet legkíméletlenebb bírálója azonban anyósa, Zsófia főhercegné volt.
Az ifjú császárné gyermekkora óta érdeklődött az irodalom és a történelem iránt. Helyzetéből adódóan hamar kialakult benne a politikai életben való tájékozódás tehetsége. Egyetlen alkalom volt azonban, amikor a politikába komolyan be is avatkozott, s ezt éppen a magyarok érdekében tette. Az 1848/49-es magyar forradalmat és szabadságharcot leverő Ferenc József felesége - talán Zsófia ellenszenve miatt is - szimpatizált a magyarokkal. 1863-tól nagy kitartással tanulta a nyelvet és a történelmet, magyar udvarhölgyeket és felolvasónőt vett maga mellé. Rendszeres levelezésben állt a magyar liberálisokkal: Andrássy Gyulával és Deák Ferenccel. Szenvedélyesen képviselte ügyüket, úgy vélte, ez a monarchia megmaradásának egyetlen esélye: határozott, már-már zsaroló hangvételű levelek tucatjaiban szólította fel a császárt az osztrák-magyar kiegyezésre. A porosz-osztrák háborúban elszenvedett végzetes vereség után a magyar viszonyok rendezésében érdekelt császár engedett: 1867 februárjában létrejött a kiegyezés, s az új állam: az Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia. Június 8-án I. Ferenc Józsefet magyar királlyá, Erzsébetet magyar királynévá koronázták. Erzsébet teljesen magáénak érezte a magyarok függetlenedési törekvéseit. Olyannyira, hogy egy nem a nyilvánosságnak szánt költeményében elárulja: fiút kíván szülni Magyarországnak, akit magyarnak nevel, s aki majd uralkodóként elszakítja Ausztriától az országot. Ezen elhatározása jegyében született meg Budán 1868-ban legkisebb gyermeke, a magyar királykisasszonynak is nevezett Mária Valéria.
Erzsébet a továbbiakban is érdeklődött a politikai események iránt, de minél többet tudott, annál jobban taszították őt a történelmi igazságtalanságok. Ezért távol tartotta magát a politikától, s magánemberként a köztársaság eszméjének híve volt.
The complex life and personality of Hungary's most beloved queen
By Eileen G.P. Brown
No personage is more closely associated with the Gödöllő royal palace than Empress Elizabeth, popularly known as "Sissi."
Princess Elizabeth of Bavaria was born on Christmas Eve 1837. She was the daughter of Maximilian Joseph, Duke of Bavaria, whose own disdain for courtly pomp and stuffiness was no doubt passed on to his daughter. Sissi grew up a tomboy, wild and relatively unschooled for a young woman of her standing.
Her life seems to have been marked by a series of fantastic and often tragic convolutions of fate, beginning with her betrothal.
The young Emperor Franz Joseph was to meet his cousin and intended bride Helena at Bad Ischl in the summer of 1853. Her fifteen-year-old sister Elizabeth was sent to accompany her.
One look at Elizabeth, and Franz Joseph declared that she, and not Helena, was to be his intended. And that was that-they were married on 24 April 1854.
The young Empress abhorred the strictures of Viennese court life and quite intentionally avoided it. Happiest in Hungary, and Gödöllő in particular, Sissi learned to speak and write Hungarian fluently and was a great supporter of the political and literary figures of the time. Few but the Hungarians recognize the valuable diplomatic role Elizabeth played in strengthening Hungary's ties to the Habsburg Empire through bringing about near parity with Austria.
Elizabeth was considered the most beautiful woman in Europe, and was ever determined to keep a firm grasp on that title. She suffered from anorexia nervosa, and her severe dietary habits and physical regime are well known.
At 172 cm (5 feet eight inches), her weight never exceeded 50 kg (110 lbs.), including her floor-length hair which took three hours to comb. Her freakishly narrow waist measured between 16 and 18 inches (41-46 cm), even after having borne four children.
Elizabeth was an extraordinary equestrienne, even practising acrobatic stunts taught to her by performers from the Renz circus in Germany. When arthritis eventually curtailed these activities, she turned to striding through the forests for six to eight hours a day, tormenting her ladies-in-waiting but as often as not setting off without an escort. A torrent of nervous energy (sometimes attributed to inbreeding among the Wittelsbach line), she fenced, swam and performed gymnastics to maintain her sylph-like slenderness.
Perhaps these exhausting privations were a means of diffusing the many stresses upon her. Not least among these were the constant approbation of her mother-in-law for snubbing the court and refusing to bear a stream of progeny.
What's more, the Emperor had contracted syphilis during a military campaign, and passed it on to his wife. The mercury used to treat the condition in those days caused Europe's most beautiful woman to lose her teeth.
Deeper tragedy was also her portion. Her only son and heir, Crown Prince Rudolf, was the subject of a monumentally scandalous incident which brought an end to the Habsburg dynastic succession. Rudolf and his mistress, Baroness Marie Vetsera, were found dead at Mayerling, the royal hunting lodge. It was ruled a double suicide, but never proven as such. Elizabeth wore black for the rest of her life.
In a final, dark fillip of unlucky fate, the Empress became the victim of Italian anarchist Luigi Luccheni. The Duke of Orléans, whom he had originally planned to assassinate at Lake Geneva, had already left and therefore Luccheni sought another high-profile target. The Empress was stabbed and died of her wounds in 1898.
Despite her frank disgust of marriage, Franz Joseph remained enamored of his wife for the rest of his life.
The Hungarian people, too, to this day adore "their" queen, Sissi. Thousands of parks, squares, streets, statues and tree plantings in Hungary are dedicated in her honor.
Le 8 juin 1867, Élisabeth, passionnée par la Hongrie, sa langue et son peuple, est couronnée reine de Hongrie aux côtés de son mari. Élisabeth devient donc Erzsébet , une souveraine aimée, admirée, acclamée, fêtée et adulée[réf. nécessaire] par le peuple magyar. Celui-ci lui offre[réf. nécessaire] le château de Gödöllö qui est situé à une trentaine de kilomètres de Budapest. Gödöllö est le seul véritable endroit où elle se sent chez elle (à l'inverse des palais de Vienne). Elle s'y rendra très souvent.
Le rôle politique d'Élisabeth dans l'élaboration du compromis austro-hongrois, sans avoir été déterminant, est incontestable. Au moins dans l'influence qu'elle eut auprès de François-Joseph à surmonter sa répugnance vis-à-vis des Magyars et celle de ces derniers à l'encontre de leur roi. La répression de la révolution hongroise de 1848 avait laissé des traces d'amertume d'autant plus profondes dans les élites et dans le peuple hongrois qu'il avait fallu que François-Joseph fasse appel aux troupes russes pour rétablir l'ordre.
En 1868, Élisabeth donne naissance à son quatrième enfant, l'archiduchesse Marie-Valérie, qu'elle élève elle-même cette fois.
Es dudoso su papel político, aunque dicen que ejerció influencia sobre el emperador para lograr el compromiso de 1867 por el que se creaba la monarquía dual austrohúngara. Al ser coronada reina de Hungría, el 8 de junio de 1867 en Cfen, recibió como obsequio el palacio Gödölö. Esto, junto con sus continuos viajes a Hungría acrecentó el rumor de una relación sentimental con el Conde Gyula Andrássy. La causa de sus viajes contínuos a Hungría era la profunda simpatía e identificación con la cultura y la causa húngaras.
While Elisabeth's role and influence on Austro-Hungarian politics should not be overestimated (she is only marginally mentioned in scholarly books on Austrian history), she has undoubtedly become a 20th century icon, often compared to Diana, Princess of Wales. She was considered to be a free spirit who abhorred conventional court protocol. She has inspired filmmakers and theatrical producers alike.
In the 1980s, Brigitte Hamann, a historian renowned for her book on Hitler's early years in Vienna (see bibliography), wrote a biography of Elisabeth, again fuelling interest in Franz Joseph's consort.
Tourism has profited enormously from the renewed interest in Elisabeth and vice versa, both in Austria and abroad. Apart from the usual souvenirs such as T-shirts and coffee mugs, visitors are eager to see the various residences Elisabeth frequented at different points in her life. These include her apartments in the Hofburg and the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna, the imperial villa in Ischl, the Achilleion in Corfu, Greece that she built in 1890, soon after her son's tragic death, and her summer residence in Gödöllő, Hungary.
Elisabeth loved Hungary far more than Austria and surrounded herself with Hungarian ladies-in-waiting, being particularly close to Marie Festetics and Ida Ferenczy. She insisted that her attendants speak Hungarian, which she herself spoke fluently. One of her closest friends, and a reputed lover, was Count Andrassy who later became Emperor Franz-Joseph's Foreign Minister. Elisabeth's attachment to Hungary benefitted the Empire because the Hungarian people returned the attachment. They considered her the only Habsburg they trusted. Her flagrant and well-known preference for Hungary mollified the Hungarians while antagonizing the Viennese, who were seething with resentment over Habsburg arrogance, and solidified the Empire. There are several sites in Hungary named after her, most famously the Erzsébet híd (Elisabeth Bridge) in Budapest.
Luigi Lucheni (April 22, 1873 – October 19, 1910) was an Italian anarchist who assassinated the Austrian Empress Elisabeth of Bavaria (commonly referred to as Sisi) in 1898. Lucheni believed in propaganda by the deed, a philosophy advocating spreading beliefs through actions.
Luigi LucheniBorn in Paris to a poor family, he worked odd jobs before joining the Italian Army for three and a half years. After a successful stay in the military, he immigrated to Switzerland. During his life in Switzerland, he developed his anarchistic ideas. However, other anarchists considered Lucheni inept at understanding the philosophy of anarchy and often referred to him as "the stupid one".
Lucheni sought to kill a member of what he felt was an elite and oppressive upper class, and he did not care which member of it he killed. In his diary, Lucheni penned, "How I would like to kill someone — but it must be someone important so it gets in the papers."
At first Lucheni decided that he would kill Philippe, Duke of Orleans, but due to the Duke's change of itinerary and the discovery of another royal being in town, he later settled for taking the life of Elisabeth. Elisabeth traveled with few bodyguards, as she was adored by the populace in general. It is generally held that while boarding a steamship to Montreux, she was stabbed by a needle file (which since is part of Sisi's Vienna museum's exhibition). Not realising she was hurt and wanting to board as quickly as possible, Sisi got to her feet straight way and walked onto the ship. At his trial, he openly admitted to his crimes, and at the age of 25, was sentenced to life in prison. After his memoirs were confiscated by prison guards, he was found hanged in his cell by his belt, apparently from suicide.
This assassination gave rise to the International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists held from November 24 to December 21, 1898. This conference agreed on a definition of anarchism as "any act that used violent means to destroy the organization of society".
Bejegyzések
6 megjegyzés:
Erzsébet, Miksa bajor herceg (1808-1888) és Ludovika (1808-1892) bajor királyi hercegnő harmadik gyermekeként látta meg a napvilágot 1837-ben, Münchenben. Gyermekkorát jórészt Possenhofenben, a Starnbergi tó partján töltötte. A család meglehetősen szabad életvitele nem terhelte kötelezettségekkel: úszással, lovaglással, hegymászással foglalkozott legszívesebben.
Ludovika nővére, Zsófia (1805-1872) bajor királyi hercegnő Ausztria császárának, I. Ferenc Józsefnek az édesanyja volt. Huszonhárom éves fia számára - az osztrák-német kapcsolatok megszilárdítása céljából - német hercegnőt keresett, így esett a választás (több sikertelen kísérlet után) a Wittelsbachokra, a hercegi család legidősebb lányára, Ilonára. A két fiatal első találkozására 1853 augusztusában, Ischlben került sor. A találkozóra Ludovika kisebbik lányát, Erzsébetet is magával vitte, aki éppen szerelmi bánat miatt búslakodott. A szép, szőke császár érdeklődését Ilona helyett a tizenhat éves, copfos, csendes, gátlásos kislány keltette fel. A kölcsönös szerelemből 1854 áprilisában megkötött házasság azonban kevés boldogságot hozott Erzsébetnek. A Hofburg falai között alig találkozott a napi politikával, az uralkodás gondjaival teljesen lekötött ifjú férjével. Erzsébet magányos volt, senkivel nem oszthatta meg bánatát, amit a szabad, boldog vidéki élet elvesztése s napirendjének a rideg udvari etiketthez való igazítása okozott. Személyisége kezdettől fogva ellentétben állt a ráosztott szereppel: a mellé rendelt idős, unalmas udvarhölgyek állandóan kritizálták öltözködését, műveltségét, tánctudását, viselkedését. Erzsébet legkíméletlenebb bírálója azonban anyósa, Zsófia főhercegné volt.
Az ifjú császárné gyermekkora óta érdeklődött az irodalom és a történelem iránt. Helyzetéből adódóan hamar kialakult benne a politikai életben való tájékozódás tehetsége. Egyetlen alkalom volt azonban, amikor a politikába komolyan be is avatkozott, s ezt éppen a magyarok érdekében tette. Az 1848/49-es magyar forradalmat és szabadságharcot leverő Ferenc József felesége - talán Zsófia ellenszenve miatt is - szimpatizált a magyarokkal. 1863-tól nagy kitartással tanulta a nyelvet és a történelmet, magyar udvarhölgyeket és felolvasónőt vett maga mellé. Rendszeres levelezésben állt a magyar liberálisokkal: Andrássy Gyulával és Deák Ferenccel. Szenvedélyesen képviselte ügyüket, úgy vélte, ez a monarchia megmaradásának egyetlen esélye: határozott, már-már zsaroló hangvételű levelek tucatjaiban szólította fel a császárt az osztrák-magyar kiegyezésre. A porosz-osztrák háborúban elszenvedett végzetes vereség után a magyar viszonyok rendezésében érdekelt császár engedett: 1867 februárjában létrejött a kiegyezés, s az új állam: az Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia. Június 8-án I. Ferenc Józsefet magyar királlyá, Erzsébetet magyar királynévá koronázták. Erzsébet teljesen magáénak érezte a magyarok függetlenedési törekvéseit. Olyannyira, hogy egy nem a nyilvánosságnak szánt költeményében elárulja: fiút kíván szülni Magyarországnak, akit magyarnak nevel, s aki majd uralkodóként elszakítja Ausztriától az országot. Ezen elhatározása jegyében született meg Budán 1868-ban legkisebb gyermeke, a magyar királykisasszonynak is nevezett Mária Valéria.
Erzsébet a továbbiakban is érdeklődött a politikai események iránt, de minél többet tudott, annál jobban taszították őt a történelmi igazságtalanságok. Ezért távol tartotta magát a politikától, s magánemberként a köztársaság eszméjének híve volt.
Faludi Ildikó
Sisi
The complex life and personality of Hungary's most beloved queen
By Eileen G.P. Brown
No personage is more closely associated with the Gödöllő royal palace than Empress Elizabeth, popularly known as "Sissi."
Princess Elizabeth of Bavaria was born on Christmas Eve 1837. She was the daughter of Maximilian Joseph, Duke of Bavaria, whose own disdain for courtly pomp and stuffiness was no doubt passed on to his daughter. Sissi grew up a tomboy, wild and relatively unschooled for a young woman of her standing.
Her life seems to have been marked by a series of fantastic and often tragic convolutions of fate, beginning with her betrothal.
The young Emperor Franz Joseph was to meet his cousin and intended bride Helena at Bad Ischl in the summer of 1853. Her fifteen-year-old sister Elizabeth was sent to accompany her.
One look at Elizabeth, and Franz Joseph declared that she, and not Helena, was to be his intended. And that was that-they were married on 24 April 1854.
The young Empress abhorred the strictures of Viennese court life and quite intentionally avoided it. Happiest in Hungary, and Gödöllő in particular, Sissi learned to speak and write Hungarian fluently and was a great supporter of the political and literary figures of the time. Few but the Hungarians recognize the valuable diplomatic role Elizabeth played in strengthening Hungary's ties to the Habsburg Empire through bringing about near parity with Austria.
Elizabeth was considered the most beautiful woman in Europe, and was ever determined to keep a firm grasp on that title. She suffered from anorexia nervosa, and her severe dietary habits and physical regime are well known.
At 172 cm (5 feet eight inches), her weight never exceeded 50 kg (110 lbs.), including her floor-length hair which took three hours to comb. Her freakishly narrow waist measured between 16 and 18 inches (41-46 cm), even after having borne four children.
Elizabeth was an extraordinary equestrienne, even practising acrobatic stunts taught to her by performers from the Renz circus in Germany. When arthritis eventually curtailed these activities, she turned to striding through the forests for six to eight hours a day, tormenting her ladies-in-waiting but as often as not setting off without an escort. A torrent of nervous energy (sometimes attributed to inbreeding among the Wittelsbach line), she fenced, swam and performed gymnastics to maintain her sylph-like slenderness.
Perhaps these exhausting privations were a means of diffusing the many stresses upon her. Not least among these were the constant approbation of her mother-in-law for snubbing the court and refusing to bear a stream of progeny.
What's more, the Emperor had contracted syphilis during a military campaign, and passed it on to his wife. The mercury used to treat the condition in those days caused Europe's most beautiful woman to lose her teeth.
Deeper tragedy was also her portion. Her only son and heir, Crown Prince Rudolf, was the subject of a monumentally scandalous incident which brought an end to the Habsburg dynastic succession. Rudolf and his mistress, Baroness Marie Vetsera, were found dead at Mayerling, the royal hunting lodge. It was ruled a double suicide, but never proven as such. Elizabeth wore black for the rest of her life.
In a final, dark fillip of unlucky fate, the Empress became the victim of Italian anarchist Luigi Luccheni. The Duke of Orléans, whom he had originally planned to assassinate at Lake Geneva, had already left and therefore Luccheni sought another high-profile target. The Empress was stabbed and died of her wounds in 1898.
Despite her frank disgust of marriage, Franz Joseph remained enamored of his wife for the rest of his life.
The Hungarian people, too, to this day adore "their" queen, Sissi. Thousands of parks, squares, streets, statues and tree plantings in Hungary are dedicated in her honor.
Le 8 juin 1867, Élisabeth, passionnée par la Hongrie, sa langue et son peuple, est couronnée reine de Hongrie aux côtés de son mari. Élisabeth devient donc Erzsébet , une souveraine aimée, admirée, acclamée, fêtée et adulée[réf. nécessaire] par le peuple magyar. Celui-ci lui offre[réf. nécessaire] le château de Gödöllö qui est situé à une trentaine de kilomètres de Budapest. Gödöllö est le seul véritable endroit où elle se sent chez elle (à l'inverse des palais de Vienne). Elle s'y rendra très souvent.
Le rôle politique d'Élisabeth dans l'élaboration du compromis austro-hongrois, sans avoir été déterminant, est incontestable. Au moins dans l'influence qu'elle eut auprès de François-Joseph à surmonter sa répugnance vis-à-vis des Magyars et celle de ces derniers à l'encontre de leur roi. La répression de la révolution hongroise de 1848 avait laissé des traces d'amertume d'autant plus profondes dans les élites et dans le peuple hongrois qu'il avait fallu que François-Joseph fasse appel aux troupes russes pour rétablir l'ordre.
En 1868, Élisabeth donne naissance à son quatrième enfant, l'archiduchesse Marie-Valérie, qu'elle élève elle-même cette fois.
Es dudoso su papel político, aunque dicen que ejerció influencia sobre el emperador para lograr el compromiso de 1867 por el que se creaba la monarquía dual austrohúngara. Al ser coronada reina de Hungría, el 8 de junio de 1867 en Cfen, recibió como obsequio el palacio Gödölö. Esto, junto con sus continuos viajes a Hungría acrecentó el rumor de una relación sentimental con el Conde Gyula Andrássy. La causa de sus viajes contínuos a Hungría era la profunda simpatía e identificación con la cultura y la causa húngaras.
While Elisabeth's role and influence on Austro-Hungarian politics should not be overestimated (she is only marginally mentioned in scholarly books on Austrian history), she has undoubtedly become a 20th century icon, often compared to Diana, Princess of Wales. She was considered to be a free spirit who abhorred conventional court protocol. She has inspired filmmakers and theatrical producers alike.
In the 1980s, Brigitte Hamann, a historian renowned for her book on Hitler's early years in Vienna (see bibliography), wrote a biography of Elisabeth, again fuelling interest in Franz Joseph's consort.
Tourism has profited enormously from the renewed interest in Elisabeth and vice versa, both in Austria and abroad. Apart from the usual souvenirs such as T-shirts and coffee mugs, visitors are eager to see the various residences Elisabeth frequented at different points in her life. These include her apartments in the Hofburg and the Schönbrunn Palace in Vienna, the imperial villa in Ischl, the Achilleion in Corfu, Greece that she built in 1890, soon after her son's tragic death, and her summer residence in Gödöllő, Hungary.
Elisabeth loved Hungary far more than Austria and surrounded herself with Hungarian ladies-in-waiting, being particularly close to Marie Festetics and Ida Ferenczy. She insisted that her attendants speak Hungarian, which she herself spoke fluently. One of her closest friends, and a reputed lover, was Count Andrassy who later became Emperor Franz-Joseph's Foreign Minister. Elisabeth's attachment to Hungary benefitted the Empire because the Hungarian people returned the attachment. They considered her the only Habsburg they trusted. Her flagrant and well-known preference for Hungary mollified the Hungarians while antagonizing the Viennese, who were seething with resentment over Habsburg arrogance, and solidified the Empire. There are several sites in Hungary named after her, most famously the Erzsébet híd (Elisabeth Bridge) in Budapest.
Luigi Lucheni (April 22, 1873 – October 19, 1910) was an Italian anarchist who assassinated the Austrian Empress Elisabeth of Bavaria (commonly referred to as Sisi) in 1898. Lucheni believed in propaganda by the deed, a philosophy advocating spreading beliefs through actions.
Luigi LucheniBorn in Paris to a poor family, he worked odd jobs before joining the Italian Army for three and a half years. After a successful stay in the military, he immigrated to Switzerland. During his life in Switzerland, he developed his anarchistic ideas. However, other anarchists considered Lucheni inept at understanding the philosophy of anarchy and often referred to him as "the stupid one".
Lucheni sought to kill a member of what he felt was an elite and oppressive upper class, and he did not care which member of it he killed. In his diary, Lucheni penned, "How I would like to kill someone — but it must be someone important so it gets in the papers."
At first Lucheni decided that he would kill Philippe, Duke of Orleans, but due to the Duke's change of itinerary and the discovery of another royal being in town, he later settled for taking the life of Elisabeth. Elisabeth traveled with few bodyguards, as she was adored by the populace in general. It is generally held that while boarding a steamship to Montreux, she was stabbed by a needle file (which since is part of Sisi's Vienna museum's exhibition). Not realising she was hurt and wanting to board as quickly as possible, Sisi got to her feet straight way and walked onto the ship. At his trial, he openly admitted to his crimes, and at the age of 25, was sentenced to life in prison. After his memoirs were confiscated by prison guards, he was found hanged in his cell by his belt, apparently from suicide.
This assassination gave rise to the International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists held from November 24 to December 21, 1898. This conference agreed on a definition of anarchism as "any act that used violent means to destroy the organization of society".
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